This invention relates to tungsten-containing articles developed as alternatives to those traditionally made of lead and lead alloys.
Production of high-density, tungsten-containing materials by conventional powder metallurgical methods is a mature technology which is routinely used to produce a family of materials with relatively high densities. Of particular relevance to the present invention are a variety of materials developed to replace lead and its alloys. Most of these materials are produced by using a series of conventional powder metallurgical processes, for example, (1) selecting graded and controlled metal powders to be combined with graded and controlled tungsten powder to obtain a desired bulk composition, (2) blending the mixture (with or without the addition of lubricants or xe2x80x9cbindersxe2x80x9d), (3) flowing the resulting mixture into a die cavity, (4) applying pressure to the mixture to obtain a mechanically agglomerated part (referred to as a xe2x80x9cgreen compactxe2x80x9d), (5) sintering the green compact in a furnace maintained at or near the melting temperature of one or more of the powder constituents to effect metallurgical bonding between adjacent particles, thereby increasing density and strength, and (6) finishing the sintered part by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Conventional tungsten powder metallurgy is at least as old as Colin J. Smithell""s U.S. Pat. No. 2,183,359 which describes a family of alloys comprised of tungsten (W), copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni). Tungsten powder metallurgy has matured to include alloys such as Wxe2x80x94Coxe2x80x94Cr, Wxe2x80x94Ni, Wxe2x80x94Fe, Wxe2x80x94Nixe2x80x94Fe et al. which are produced commercially by a large number of companies.
More recently, a variety of materials have been developed for the general purpose of offering alternatives to lead and its alloys. Lead has been outlawed in the U.S., Canada and some European countries for use in waterfowl hunting shot, due to its toxicity. In both civilian and military sectors, there is growing pressure for the outlawing or restriction of lead bullets. Similar pressures against the use of lead are gaining momentum in fishing (lures and sinkers), automotive wheel weights, and even in such household items as curtain weights and children""s toys. Perhaps because of concerns pertaining to the health and safety of industrial workers, lead articles of virtually any sort are being viewed as undesirable. These and other social and political pressures have resulted in a spate of recent efforts to find acceptable alternatives to lead.
When one considers available and affordable materials which are denser than, for example, iron or steel, only a limited number of candidate elements come to mind. The choices (bearing in mind that iron and steels have densities of approximately 8 g/cc) include: copper (8.9), nickel (8.9), bismuth (9.8), molybdenum (10.2) and tungsten (19.3). Such metals as U (18.9), Ta (16.6), precious metals and certain xe2x80x9crare earthxe2x80x9d elements are deemed too expensive to be economically feasible as lead alternatives. When one calculates the cost-per-density-gain (i.e., the cost/pound of a candidate material, divided by the gain in density over that of iron/steel), it is found that tungsten is the most attractive material available on a commodity basis. Furthermore, ferrotungsten is the most economical form of tungsten, being generally less than half the cost (per pound of contained tungsten) of pure tungsten powder. Many of the methods found in U.S. patents fail to recognize these economic factors. These will be individually addressed later in this section, following presentation of additional factors relevant to tungsten-based lead alternatives (WLA""s).
All of the past and present WLA technologies are subject to structural and compositional limitations imposed on the various alloy systems by considerations of thermochemical equilibrium. For example, one may conclude by examining the phase diagram for the Nixe2x80x94W alloy system that the Ni-rich phase (xe2x80x9calphaxe2x80x9d) can dissolve only a certain maximum amount of W at a given temperature, and even this amount of W only under conditions of xe2x80x9cthermal equilibriumxe2x80x9d (i.e., when enough time is allowed at a specified temperature for the system to become stable). This type of limitation is referred to as xe2x80x9climited solid solubility.xe2x80x9d In conventional WLA technologies, limited solid solubility restricts the amount of W which can be alloyed with another metal during melting or sintering, for example.
Another type of restriction which thermodynamic considerations may identify for certain alloy systems is referred to as xe2x80x9cintermetallic compound formation.xe2x80x9d An example of this may be found in the Wxe2x80x94Fe system. If, for example, more tungsten than the amount which can be dissolved in ferritic iron is present in the bulk alloy composition, the xe2x80x9cexcessxe2x80x9d W atoms chemically react with Fe atoms to form intermetallic compounds such as Fe7W6. Intermetallic compounds are generally harder and more brittle (i.e., less ductile/malleable) than solid solutions of the same metals. This is certainly true of Fe7W6, as alloys which contain significant amounts of this phase (e.g., xe2x80x9cferrotungstenxe2x80x9d) are notoriously brittle and therefore difficult to fabricate into useful articles.
In addition to the difficulties associated with limited solid solubility and intermetallic compound formation, conventional WLA""s suffer from yet another limitation inherent in conventional powder metallurgy. Because sintering generally involves temperatures above those necessary to cause grain growth, one must accept the fact that the xe2x80x9cas-compactedxe2x80x9d dimensions of constituent powder particles will be smaller than the dimensions of alloy grains observed in the final product, and that grain sizes will generally be larger at increased sintering times and temperatures. This xe2x80x9cgrain coarseningxe2x80x9d is usually undesirable, as mechanical properties of such products are degraded in accordance with a principle of metallurgy known as the xe2x80x9cHall-Petchxe2x80x9d effect.
Yet another problem associated with conventional WLA methods is the potential occurrence of a phenomenon encountered during sintering known as xe2x80x9cgravity segregation.xe2x80x9d If temperatures high enough to cause liquid to form during sintering are employed (referred to as xe2x80x9cliquid-phase sinteringxe2x80x9d), the denser tungsten-rich phase particles will tend to settle out of the mushy mixture, resulting in an inhomogeneous product. In accordance with principles of physics such as Stokes"" Law, which describes the settling rates of solid particles in fluids, xe2x80x9cgravity segregationxe2x80x9d effects will be exacerbated by coarser particles with higher densities.
The present invention offers the potential to significantly reduce problems in producing WLA""s which are attributable to limited solid solubility, intermetallic compound formation, coarse grain structure and gravity segregation. Specifically, these improvements are effected by applying a relatively recent technology known as xe2x80x9cmechanical alloyingxe2x80x9d (MA) to tungsten-containing products.
Mechanical alloying is one of several relatively new technologies by which novel materials may be synthesized under conditions described as xe2x80x9cfar from equilibrium.xe2x80x9d Such processes are capable of producing metastable phases (i.e., phases not possible under conditions of thermal equilibrium), highly-refined structures and novel composites described as xe2x80x9cintimate mechanical mixtures.xe2x80x9d MA is essentially a highly specialized type of milling process in which material mixtures are subjected to extremely high-energy application rates and repetitive cycles of pressure-welding, deformation, fracturing and rewelding between adjacent particles. These cyclical mechanisms ultimately produce lamellar structures of highly-refined, intimately mixed substances. Localized pressures and temperatures may be instantaneously high enough to cause alloying (by interdiffusion between different constituents) and/or chemical reactions (xe2x80x9cmechanochemical processingxe2x80x9d). Because such repetitive, instantaneous events are relatively brief, the system is never able to attain thermodynamic equilibrium. An example of the novel materials resulting from xe2x80x9cfar-from-equilibriumxe2x80x9d processing may be seen by referring to the binary phase diagram of the iron-aluminum system. The diagram illustrates that the maximum solid solubility of iron in aluminum is 0.05%. However, MA has been applied to mixtures of Fe and Al to extend the solid solubility range to 9.0% Fe. There are a large number of other examples of extended solid solubility which have been achieved through MA, and additional examples are published every year.
The extremely fine particle or grain sizes resulting from MA make possible the production of novel structures such as xe2x80x9cnanocrystalsxe2x80x9d, xe2x80x9cquasicrystalsxe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9camorphous/metal glasses.xe2x80x9d In nanocrystals, particle dimensions (on the order of nanometers) are so small that the number of metal atoms associated with grain boundaries are equal to, or greater than, the number of geometrically ordered interior atoms. Such materials have very different properties from those of larger-grained, conventional metals and alloys. Similarly, quasicrystals are comprised of small numbers of atoms arranged, for example, as two-dimensional (i.e., flat) particles, while metallic glasses are essentially xe2x80x9camorphousxe2x80x9d in structure (i.e., lacking any degree of geometrical atomic arrangement). Each of these material types displays unique properties very unlike those of conventional materials of the same chemical composition, properties of the latter being dependent upon specific planes and directions within individual crystalline grains.
In addition to extended solid solubility and structural refinement, MA has been shown to prevent formation of certain undesirable intermetallic compounds present at equilibrium and to make possible the incorporation of insoluble, non-metallic phases (e.g., oxides) into metals to strengthen metallic grains by a mechanism referred to as xe2x80x9cdispersoid strengthening.xe2x80x9d
Equipment types which have been used to accomplish MA processing include SPEX mills (three-axis xe2x80x9cshakersxe2x80x9d), attritors (xe2x80x9cstirred ball millsxe2x80x9d), vibrational mills, and modified conventional ball mills in which greater ball-to-feed ratios and rotational speeds than those of conventional grinding are employed.
In the present invention, MA is presented as being particularly effective in producing WLA""s from the combination of a heavy, brittle constituent (e.g., ferrotungsten) and a soft, ductile constituent (e.g., nickel, fin, copper, zinc, bismuth, et al.). MA is further enhanced if the volume fraction of the hard phase is smaller than the volume fraction of the ductile phase, which is exactly the case in WLA compositions (e.g., where densities are similar to the 11.3 g/cc value for lead).
Having presented a variety of factors and considerations which are pertinent to the production of WLA""s, the various approaches currently found in U.S. patent literature are individually critiqued:
(1) U.S. Pat. No. 5,913,256 to Lowden et al., Jun. 15, 1999:
The methods presented all involve mixtures or blends of metal powders containing only elemental or equilibrium phases of commonly available particle sizes. Further adding to the cost of graded (i.e., specifically sized and controlled) powders are claims which require costly coating of individual powder particles and addition of xe2x80x9cwetting agentsxe2x80x9d to enhance interparticle bonding. Conventional pressing of the mixtures is employed, but no sintering follows.
(2) U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,437 to Oltrogge, Mar. 2, 1999:
As in (1), methods include mixing metal powders of elemental or equilibrium phases of commonly available particle sizes, followed by conventional powder metallurgical xe2x80x9cpress-and-sinterxe2x80x9d methods. Other claims refer to methods involving molten metal composites and xe2x80x9cpastes.xe2x80x9d
(3) U.S. Pat. No. 5,831,188 to Amick et al., Nov. 3, 1998:
Claims methods of sintering xe2x80x9ctungsten-containing powdersxe2x80x9d to produce an intermetallic compound (an equilibrium phase) of tungsten and iron.
(4) U.S. Pat. No. 5,814,759 to Mravic, Sep. 29, 1998:
Presents methods for preparing mixtures of discrete particles of as-produced ferrotungsten with commonly available sizes of iron powder or polymeric powder, followed by conventional pressing and sintering. As previously mentioned, intermetallic compounds of iron and tungsten (equilibrium phases) are hard and brittle.
(5) U.S. Pat. No. 5,760,331 to Lowden et al., Jun. 2, 1998:
Employs mixtures or blends of metal powders containing only elemental equilibrium phases of commonly available particle sizes.
(6) U.S. Pat. No. 5,786,416 to Gardner et al., Jul. 28, 1998:
One of several patents in which a high-density powder (preferably tungsten) is mixed with one or more polymers.
(7) U.S. Pat. No. 5,719,352 to Griffin, Feb. 17, 1998:
Another metal-polymer method in which tungsten (or molybdenum) particles are mixed with a polymer matrix.
(8) U.S. Pat. No. 5,713,981 to Amick, Feb. 3, 1998:
A melting method in which an iron-tungsten alloy is cast into spherical shot. As in other iron-tungsten methods, brittle intermetallic compounds are present in products.
(9) U.S. Pat. No. 5,527,376 to Amick et al., Jun. 18, 1996:
Similar to (3) in that tungsten and iron powders are sintered to form an alloy of two equilibrium phases, namely, an intermetallic compound and ferritic iron.
(10) U.S. Pat. No. 5,399,187 to Mravic et al., Mar. 21, 1995:
As in (2) and (4), conventional graded metal powders containing elemental or equilibrium phases are pressed-and-sintered in a conventional manner.
(11) U.S. Pat. No. 5,279,787 to Oltrogge, Jan. 18, 1994:
As in (2), commonly available metal powders are used to form a solid-liquid molten slurry or xe2x80x9cpaste.xe2x80x9d
(12) U.S. Pat. No. 5,264,022 to Haygarth et al., Nov. 23, 1993:
As in (8), shot is produced from a molten tungsten-iron alloy comprised of equilibrium phases, including intermetallic compounds.
(13) U.S. Pat. No. 4,949,645 to Hayward et al., Aug. 21, 1990:
This is apparently the earliest of the tungsten-polymer patents.
In addition to these 13 reference patents, there are many others which are not considered herein because they contain lead, are not dense enough to be considered as lead substitutes, or do not contain tungsten (and therefore do not qualify as WLA""s).
The present invention recognizes several problems and limitations of conventional WLA""s and proposes mechanical alloying as a means of improving both the cost and quality of powder products and articles produced from them. Specific problems and corresponding solutions possible with MA include:
1) The types of raw materials which are conventionally used in producing WLA""s are necessarily of high quality, from such standpoints as chemical purity, controlled particle size distribution, cleanliness of particle surfaces, etc. MA is capable of using relatively inhomogeneous feed materials of loosely specified particle size, due to the super-refinement associated with high-energy milling. For example, ferrotungsten may be used as feed material, in spite of the fact that it is a crude commodity which commonly contains non-metallic slag inclusions. During MA, such brittle particles will become refined and uniformly distributed as dispersoids throughout the final product, thereby reducing detrimental effects associated with larger slag inclusions.
2) Limited solid solubilities between W and other metals inherently limit the densities of ductile alloys possible to make under equilibrium conditions. MA is capable of extending solubility ranges and, in some cases, making ductile W alloys from metals conventionally viewed as being totally insoluble in W.
3) The problem of xe2x80x9cgravity segregationxe2x80x9d, due to the extremely high density of W, is ameliorated by the super-refinement of product particle sizes by MA.
4) The formation of brittle intermetallic compounds is discouraged by the metastable conditions associated with MA
5) Because of the extremely fine structures resulting from MA, smaller grain sizes and superior mechanical properties are possible in a variety of products.
6) Whereas the types of material phases (e.g., solid solutions, compounds, et al.) are limited in conventional WLA processing to those dictated by the appropriate phase diagrams, novel microstructures and metastable phases are possible with MA, thereby expanding the range of material types and properties possible.
7) MA, by virtue of its ability to produce xe2x80x9cintimate mechanical mixturesxe2x80x9d, may make it possible to incorporate metals, compounds and other substances into tungsten-based alloys to produce novel types of composites. For example, it appears to be impractical (by conventional metallurgy) to alloy the heavy metal bismuth with tungsten because of the extreme differences in melting points of the two metals, total insolubility in the solid state and the inherently weak and frangible nature of bismuth. These factors may be inconsequential when MA is employed to produce intimate mechanical mixtures.
Another set of objectives of the present invention is associated with relatively high-density articles produced from mechanically alloyed powder products. Tungsten is generally used in applications in which its high density (19.3 g/cm3) and/or high-temperature strength are required. Applications in which high density is the main requirement are particularly addressed by the present invention because of the fact that chemical purity and many mechanical and physical properties are not critical in many of these applications. This is mentioned because the main difficulties encountered in MA are slight contamination of product by wear of the grinding balls and mill interior surfaces, and difficulty in eliminating porosity in compacted particles. Accordingly, the following objectives address articles in which bulk density is the primary requirement, rather than mechanical properties:
1) production of both frangible and non-frangible bullets, shot and other projectiles from MA powders containing tungsten.
2) production of fishing lures and sinkers from MA powders containing W.
3) production of heavy inserts and counterweights from MA powders containing W.
4) production of wheels, including flywheels and other rotating parts from MA powders containing W.
5) production of automotive wheel weights from MA powders containing W.
6) production of stabilizers and ballast weights used, for example, in aircraft, from MA powders containing W.
None
A method based upon the application of mechanical alloying which is useful in the production of a variety of tungsten-containing powders and articles is presented.
In preparation for mechanical alloying, two or more granular substances are selected, at least one of which contains tungsten and has a density of greater than 10.0 g/cc and at least one of which is a substance of less than 10.0 g/cc density.
The mixture of said granular substances is placed in a high-energy milling machine such as an attritor, shaking mill, vibrating mill or modified (i.e., high ball-to-feed ratio and/or high rotational speed) conventional ball mill. During the milling operation, particles are repeatedly welded together, deformed, is fractured and rewelded to produce progressively finer product potentially containing a rich variety of phases including metastable (i.e., non-equilibrium) solid solutions with extended solubility (xe2x80x9csuper-saturated solid solutionsxe2x80x9d), metastable metallic compounds and super-refined structures such as nanocrystals, quasicrystals, amorphous phases and intimate mechanical mixtures. It is possible for tungsten-containing WLA""s to be benefited by one or more of these phenomena, even when ungraded or impure feed materials are used.
Mechanically alloyed, tungsten-containing powder products may be further consolidated into useful articles by a variety of processes used in conventional powder metallurgy including such processes as agglomeration, mixing/blending (with or without binder or lubricant additions), compaction, debinding, sintering and finishing (mechanical and/or chemical). In processing MA powders, the extremely fine particle sizes normally produced must be borne in mind in selecting appropriate processing parameters and controls.
In one embodiment of the present invention, special mixtures of MA powders and other conventional powders or granules may be prepared before initiating consolidation. An interesting example of an application in which such combinations of MA and conventional particulates may be useful is found in the production of frangible bullets. In order to gain the desired behavior, namely, the ability of a bullet to dissipate energy by fracture into small, non-lethal fragments upon impact with a hard surface, a blend of MA powders and roughly spherical particles of a larger conventional material may be ideal. In essence, the fine, tungsten-containing MA powder would act as a binder or matrix between the larger particles of conventional material. In each such application, optimum MA-to-conventional mixture ratios would be developed to enhance properties and cost.
Another embodiment of the present invention is its potential for improving properties and costs of WLA articles in which low-cost, albeit ungraded and impure (slag-containing) ferrotungsten may be used as feed material to an MA operation. For example, softer metals such as aluminum, zinc, tin and nickel may be mechanically alloyed with ferrotungsten to produce a highly refined metal-matrix-composite (MMC) in which dispersoids (slag, intermetallic compounds et al.) of sub-micron size are uniformly distributed throughout a relatively ductile matrix phase. The matrix phase may itself have extended solid solubility and other novel properties induced by MA mechanisms.